1. EXPLORING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Development - refers to the pattern of continuity and chance in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life. Most development involves growth, although it also consists of decline (for example, processing information becomes slower for older adults)
Development - refers to the pattern of continuity and chance in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life. Most development involves growth, although it also consists of decline (for example, processing information becomes slower for older adults)
Several Processes of Human Development
2. Cognitive Process - involves changes in an individuals`s thought, intelligence, and language.
3. Socioemotional processes- involve changes in an individual`s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
Nature and Nurture Influence Development
-Related to the distinction between genotype and phenotype is a broade distinction between nature and nurtue.
a. nurture-refers to an organism`s environmental experience. Environmental influences range from the things we lump together such as parenting, family dynamics, peer relationshis, schooling, and neighborhood quality.
b. nature-refers to an organism`s biological inheritance such as viruses, birth complications, and even cellular activities.
Note: You might think of nature and nurture as the raw ingredients of yourself as a person but you yourself take those ingredients and make them into the person who you are.
2. CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Development from Prenatal Stages to Adolescence
>Prenatal Development - conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the male penetrates the female`s ovum (egg). This process is also called fertilization. A sygote is a fertilized egg.
The three periods of Prenatal
http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?hl=en&biw=829&bih=393&gbv=2&tbm=isch&tbnid=c_D4dhJffJzkRM:&imgrefurl=http://www.ayushveda.com/about-ectopic-pregnancy/&doci -ectopic pregnancy-
2. Embrynonic period - 3 through 8 weeks: before most women even know they are pregnant, the rateof cell differentation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and the beginnings of organs appear. In the third week, the neural tube, which eventually becomes the spinal cord, starts to form. At about 21 days, eyes befin to appear, and by 24 days the cells of the heart have begun to differentiate. During the fourth week, arm and leg bud emerge. At 5 to 8 weeks, the heart begins to beat, arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form, and the intestinal tract appears.3. Fetal period - months 2 through 9: Organs mature to the point at which life can be sustained outside the womb, and muscles begin their first exercies. The mother feels the fetus move for the first time. At 6 months after conception, the eyes and eyelids are completely formed, a fine layer of hair convers the fetus, the grasping reflex appears, and irregular breathing begins. At 7 to 9 months, the fetus is much longer and weights considerably more. In addition, the functioning various organs steps up.
Threat to the Fetus: Teratogens (greek word-monster)- refers to the chemical substances ingested by the mothr or an illness such as rubella (german measles). The prescription drug thalidomide drug thalidomide. Also Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) a mother who is heavy drinker. This causes a very serious problems involving the esophagus, vertebrae and eyes. The baby could be born with severe facial clefts or missing hands or feet or preterm infat.
>Birth: has nearly as many dangers as the embryonic stage, mostly from infections and anoxia. Anoxia means "no oxygen" and can be due to a number of situations: If something prevents the exchange of blood from mother to child prior to the baby breathing on its own, the lack of oxygen quickly begins to take its toll, especially on the brain. This is called cord strangulation. A breech birth, which involves the baby`s buttocks going first instead of its head, can slow the birth process. Premature separation of the placenta from the mother`s uterus can cause anoxia as well. Caesarian section (C-section) when such problems arise, in order to get the baby out more quickly.
>Infancy - is usually considered the firs 2 1/2 years of life. The first two months of infancy is called the neonatal period. Ta this point, life is mostly a matter of satisfying one`s basic needs: Enough milk (preferably mom`s), staying warm and dry, and of course, pooping-lots of pooping. The infant needs to be protecte from harm and infection, the latter being the greatest threat at this time of his life.
Infants can see at birth, but they are very nearsighted and can`t coordinate their eye movements. Hearing, on the other hand, is already at work in the womb, by about the 20th week. Smell and taste are sharp at birth, and babies have a preference for sweets, which not coincidentally includes breast milk.
In the neonate, we can clearly see the presence of some basic reflexes, such as rooting (searching for mom`s nipple) and startle reflex. We can also see certain instinctual patterns: Infants seem to orient towards faces and voices, especially female ones, and seem to recognize their mother`s voice and smell.
Motor and Perceptual Skills - relative to the rest of the body, a newborn`s head is gigantic, and it flops around uncontrollably. Within 12 months, the infant becomes capable of sitting upright, standing, stooping, climbing, and often walking. During the second year, growth decelerates, but rapid gains occur in such acitivities as running and climbing.
However, pyschologists now recognize that motor development is not the conssequence of nature or nuture alone but how motor skill develop and away from simply decribing the age at which they develop.
In addition, when infants are motivated to do something, they may create a new motor behavior. That new behavior is the result of many conversing factors: the developing nervous system, the body`s physical properties and its movement possibilities, the goal the infant is motivated to reach, and environmental support for the skill, environmental experiences play a role in reaching and grasping.
The Brain - as an infant walks, talks, runs, shakes a rattle, smiles, and frowns, his or her brain is changing dramatically. The infant`s brain literally is ready and waiting for the experiences that will create the connections.
Cognitive Development in Childhood
refers to how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature.
Piaget`s Theory of Cognitive Development:
a. Assimilation - occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge. Ex. a child realizes that she might pick up a set of keys, she is assimilating the category "keys" into the schema of "picking up"
b. Accommodation - occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information. That is, people accommodate their schemas to the environment. Ex. the schema "picking up" becomes modified into diffrent schemas that accommodate the realities types of objects.
Piaget`s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
a.1 abject permanence - Piaget`s term for this crucial accomplishment: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
Ex. to show an infant an interesting toy and then cover the toy with a blanket. If infants understand that the toy still exists, object permanence continues to develop throughout the sensorimotor period
b. Preoperational Stage - The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
b.1 Conservation - a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations in spite of superficial changes. Ex. An amount of water was placed in the thin baker (A) is greater than in the short, wide baker (B). The 8-year old child consistently says the amounts are the. The 4-year-old, a preoperational thinker, cannot mentally reverse the pouring action.
b.2 Egocentrism - inability to distinguish between one`s own perspective and someone`s perspective.
b.3 Intiutive - Often did not give logical answers but offered personal insights or guesses instead.
c. Concrete Operational Stage - The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
d. Formal Operational Stage - Adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.
Socioemotioanl Development in Childhood
As children grow and develop, they are socialized by and socialize others, such as parents, siblings, peers, and teachers. Their small world widens as they grow older.
Erickson`s Theory of Psychosocial/socioemotional development
Age Social Crisis Relationship Question
0-2yrs Hopes Basic Trust VS Mother Can I trust Feeding
Mistrust the world? Abandonment
2-4yrs Will Autonomy VS Parents Is it ok to Toilet
Shame & Doubt be me? Training
Clothing
Themselves
4-5yrs Purpose Initiative VS Family Is it ok for Exploring,
Guilt me to do, Using Tools
move and act? or making
art
5-12yrs Competence Industry VS Neighbors, Can i make school sports
Inferiority school it in the
world of
people
and things?
13-19yrs Fidelity Identity VS Adolescence, Who am I Social
Role Confusion Peers, what can relationships
Role Model I be?
20-24yrs Love Intimacy VS Young Can I love? Romantic
Isolation adulthood, Relationships
Friends,
Partners
25-64yrs Care Generativity Middle Can I make Work
VS Stagnation adulthood my life Parenthood
workmates count? Household,
65-death Wisdom Ego Integrity Late Is it ok Reflection on
VS Despair adulthood to have
Mankind, been me?
My kind
Attachment in Infancy
The word attachemen usually refers to a strong relationship between tow people in which reach peerson does a number of things to continue the relationship.
Attachment style
a. Secure Attachment - securely attached infant responds positively to being picked up by others and when put back down, happily moves away to play.
Ex. the secure infant is upset when the mother leaves but calms down and appears happy to see her when she returns.
c. Temperament - one factor that some psychologists believe is critical to understanding child development. An individual`s behavioral styke and characteristic way of responding.
Three basic types of temperament in children:
2. The difficult child: tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences.
3. The slow-to warm-up child: has a low activity level, somewhat negative, shows low adaptability, and displays a low intensity of mood.
Parenting Style
Style Parental Behavior Common Outcome inChildren
1. Autoritarian Restrict and punish Anxiety about social compari-
Orders not to be son, lack of intiative, poor
questioned. Little communication skills.
verbal exchange.
2. Autoritative Encourage indepen- Social competence, self-re
dence within limits liance, social responsibility
Estensive verbal
give -and-take.
Warmth, nurturance
3. Neglectful Little involve- Anxiety about social compari
ment in the child`s son, lack of initiative, poor
life. Unaware of what communication skills
the child is doing
4. Indulgent Involved with the Anxiety about social compari
child but without son, lack of initiative, poor
placing demands. communication skils.
Highly permissive
Moral Development
Moral Development involves changes with age in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide what people should do. Moral development has both an intrapersonal dimension (a person`s basic values and sense of self) and an interpersonal dimension (what people should do in their interactions with other people.)
Kohlberg`s Theory-began his study of moral thinking by creating 11 stories and asking children, adolescents, and adults questions about the stories. One of the stories (set in Europe) goes like this:
"A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $ 200 for the radium and charge $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. the sick woman`s husband. Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could get together only $ 1,000. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No. I discovered the drug, and I am going to make money from it" Despeerate, Heinz broke inthe the man`s store to steal the drug for his wife"
Level 1
Preconventional Level - No Interanlization
Based on primarily on punishment (stage 1)or rewards (stage 2) that come from the external world.
Stage 1
Heteronomous Morality
Individuals pursue their own itnerests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange.
Stage 2
Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment
Level 2
Conventional Level
Intermediate Internalization
The individual abides by standears such as those learned from parents (stage 3) or society`s laws (stage 4)
Stage 3
Mutual Interpersonal
Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Stage 4
Social systme Morality
Moral judgments are based on understanding and the social order, law, justice, and duty.
Level 3
Postconventional Level
Full Internalization
The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops a personal moral code. The reflects the priciples generally accepted by the community (stage 5) or it reflects more abstract priciples for all of humanity (stage 6)
Stage 5
Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights
Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.
Stage 6
Universal Ethical Prinicples
The person has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed.
Gender Development
Gender - refers to the social and psychological aspects of being female and male. Gender includes not only biological sex but also one`s understanding of the meaning of gender in one`s life. Although checking off "male" or "female" on a questionnaire may seem like a pretty simple decision, gender is a complex variable influenced by both nature (biological factors) and nurture (social and environmental factors)
Biology and Gender Development
1. Androgens - also called androgenic hormone or testoid, is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This includes the activity of the accessory male sex organs and development of male secondary sex characteristics.
2. Estrogens - are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal. The name comes from the Greek (oistros), literally meaning "gadfly" but figuratively sexual passion or desire, and the suffix -gen, meaning "producer of"
Gender Roles - which involve expectation for how females and females should think , act and feel.
Adolescence
Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It begins around 10 to 12 years of age and ends at 18 to 21 years of age.
Note:
On average, the pubertal growth spurt begins and peaks about 2 years earlier for girls (starts at 9, peaks at 11.5) than for boys (starts at 11.5, peaks at 13.5)
Note:
On average, the pubertal growth spurt begins and peaks about 2 years earlier for girls (starts at 9, peaks at 11.5) than for boys (starts at 11.5, peaks at 13.5)
3. ADOLESCENCE
Physical Development in Adolescence - Dramatic physical changes characterize adolescence, especially early adolescence. Among the major physical changes of adolescence are those involving puberty and the brain.
Puberty Change - The signature physical change in adolescence is puberty, a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence. In general, we know when an individual is going through puberty, be we have a hard time pinpointing its beginning and its end.
The Brain - The advances in imaging of the humans brain have allowed researchers to discover some important changes in the brain during adolescence. These changes focus on the earlier development of the amygdala, which involves emotion, and the later development of the prefrontal cortex, the highest level of the brain opmental psychologists who study adolescents often display very strong emotions but cannot yet control these passions.
Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Piaget`s Formal Operational Stage - adolescents enter a fourth, most advance stage of cognitive development, which he called the formal operational stage, at about 11 to 15 years of age. It is characterized by thought that is abstract, idealistic, and logical. Abstract quality of adolescents` thought is their increased tendency to think about thought itself. One adolescent commented, "I began thinking about why I was thinking about what I was. Then, I began thinking about why I was thinking about why I was " If these statements sound abstract, they are.
Adolescent Egocentrism - adolescent egocentrism involves the beliefs that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is, that one is unique, and that one is invincible. The aspect of adolescent egocentrism that can produce the most harm is a sense of invincibility. This belief may lead to behaviors such as drag racing, drug use, suicide attempts, or unsafe sex leading to sexually transmitted disease or adolescent pregnancy. Imagine the adolescent girl who hears that a friend has become pregnant. she may say, "I won`t ever let that happen to me" - and then have unprotected sex the next week. Her sense of invincibility cause her to behave in a high-risk manner.
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence
The increase in abstract and idealistic thought during adolescence serves as a foundation for exploring one`s identity. Many aspects of socioemotional development-such as relationships with parents, peer interaction and friendships, and cultural and ethnic values-contribute to an adolescent`s identity development.
Erikson`s Theory and Identity Development - Erikson theory characterizes the main concern of the fifth stage of socioemotional development as identity versus identity confusion. In seeking an Identity, adolescents face the challenges of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. Adolescents are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses-from the vocational to the romantic. If they do not adequately explore their identities during this stage, they emerge confused about who they are.
Identity Status: Two dimensions of identity are important
a. Exploration - refers to a person`s exploring various options for a career and for personal values
b. Commitment - involves making decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity.
*Various combinations of exploration and commitment give rise to one of four identity statues
1. Identity diffusion: A person has not yet explored meaningful alternatives and has not made a commitment. Many young adolescents have a diffuse (unclear) identity status. They have not yet began to explore different career options and personal values.
2. Identity foreclosure: a person makes a commitment to an identity before adequately exploring various options. for example, adolescent might say that she wants to be a doctor because that is what her parents want her to be, rather than exploring career options and then deciding on her own to be a doctor
3. Identity moratorium: A person is exploring alternative paths but has not yet made a commitment. Many college students are in a moratorium status with regard to a major field of study of a career.
4. Identity achievement: A person has explored alternative paths and made a commitment. For example, an individual might have examined a number of careers over as extended period of time and decided to pursue one wholeheartedly.
Ethnic Identity - Developing an identity in adolescence can be especially challenging for individuals form ethnic minority groups. As they mature cognitively, many adolescents become acutely aware of the evaluation of their ethnic group by the majority culture. In addition, an increasing number of minority adolescents face the challenge of biculturalism-identifying in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture.
Parents and Peers
Parents and peers are both powerful influences on adolescents` development. an important developmental task in adolescence is to acquire the ability to make competent decisions in an increasingly independent manner. To help adolescents teach their full potential, an important parental role is to be an effective manager-one who locates information, makes contacts, helps to structure their offspring`s choices, and provides guidance.
Developing a Positive Identity
Following are some helpful attitudes for developing a positive identity:
Following are some helpful attitudes for developing a positive identity:
* Be aware that your identity is complex and takes a long time to develop. Your identity has many components. One of your main identity tasks is to integrate all of these parts into a meaningful whole. Your identity does not arise in a sudden burst of insight. It is achieved in bits and pieces over your lifetime. What are some of the bits and pieces of your identity development?
* Make the most of your college years. For many individuals, the college years are an important time for identity development. College by its very nature encourages exploration and exposure to a wide variety of ideas and values. Your views likely will be challenged by instructors and classmates, and these challenges may motivate you to change some aspects of your identity.
* Examine whether your identity is your own or your parents`. Some college students have foreclosed on an identity without adequately considering alternatives. Identity foreclosure occurs especially when individuals accept their parents` view without deeply questioning whether they want to be just like them. Individuals might come to an identity similar to that of their parents; but while evaluating different paths, they may discover a more suitable identity. Have you genuinely developed an identity that is your own.
3. ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING
Emerging Adulthood - the transition from adolescence to adulthood , at this point in their development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt.
Five Key Features Characterize Emerging Adulthood:
1. Identity Exploration, Especially in Love and Work - Emerging adulthood is the time during which key changes in identity take place for many individuals.
2. Instability - Residential changes peak during early adulthood, a time during which there also is often instability in love, work, and education.
3. Self-focused - According to Arnett, emerging adults "are self -focused in the sense that they have little in the way of social obligations, little in the way of duties and commitments to others, which leaves them with a great deal of autonomy in running their own lives"
4. Feeling "in between"- Many emerging adults do not consider themselves adolescents or full-fledged adults
5. The age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives - Arnet (2006) describes two ways in which emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities: (1) Many emerging adults are optimistic about their future and (2) for emerging adults who have experiences difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to direct their lives in a more positive direction.
Physical Development in Adulthood
Most adults reach their peak physical performance during their 20s and are healthiest then. However, physical skill begin to decline during the 30s. Changes in physical appearance are among the most visible signs of aging in middle adulthood. Menopause, which also takes place during middle adulthood, has been stereotyped as more negative than it actually is. The cellular-clock and free-radical theories are two important biological theories of aging. Alzheimer disease is a special concern. Even in late adulthood, the brain has remarkable repair capacity and plasticity.
Cognitive Development in Adulthood
Piaget argued that no new cognitive changes occur in adulthood. However, some psychologists have proposed that the idealistic thinking of adolescents is replaced by the more realistic, pragmatic thinking of young adults. Horn argued that crystallized intelligence increases in middle age, whereas fluid intelligence declines. Schaie conducted a longitudinal study.
Physical Development in Adulthood
Most adults reach their peak physical performance during their 20s and are healthiest then. However, physical skill begin to decline during the 30s. Changes in physical appearance are among the most visible signs of aging in middle adulthood. Menopause, which also takes place during middle adulthood, has been stereotyped as more negative than it actually is. The cellular-clock and free-radical theories are two important biological theories of aging. Alzheimer disease is a special concern. Even in late adulthood, the brain has remarkable repair capacity and plasticity.
Cognitive Development in Adulthood
Piaget argued that no new cognitive changes occur in adulthood. However, some psychologists have proposed that the idealistic thinking of adolescents is replaced by the more realistic, pragmatic thinking of young adults. Horn argued that crystallized intelligence increases in middle age, whereas fluid intelligence declines. Schaie conducted a longitudinal study.
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